Bladder cancer is where a growth of abnormal tissue, known as a tumour, develops in the bladder lining. In some cases, the tumour spreads into the surrounding muscles. The most common symptom of bladder cancer is blood in your urine, which is usually painless.

Types of bladder cancer:- Once diagnosed, bladder cancer can be classified by how far it has spread. If the cancerous cells are contained inside the lining of the bladder, doctors describe it as non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer. This is the most common type of bladder cancer, accounting for 7 out of 10 cases.

Most people don’t die as a result of this type of bladder cancer. When the cancerous cells spread beyond the lining, into the surrounding muscles of the bladder, it’s referred to as muscle-invasive bladder cancer. This is less common, but has a higher chance of spreading to other parts of the body and can be fatal. If bladder cancer has spread to other parts of the body, it’s known as locally advanced or metastatic bladder cancer.
Why does bladder cancer happen?
Most cases of bladder cancer appear to be caused by exposure to harmful substances, which lead to abnormal changes in the bladder’s cells over many years. Tobacco smoke is a common cause and it’s estimated that half of all cases of bladder cancer are caused by smoking. Contact with certain chemicals previously used in manufacturing is also known to cause bladder cancer. However, these substances have since been banned.
Treating bladder cancer:-
In cases of non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer, it’s usually possible to remove the cancerous cells while leaving the rest of the bladder intact.This is done using a surgical technique called transurethral resection of a bladder tumour (TURBT). This is followed by a dose of chemotherapy medication directly into the bladder, to reduce the risk of the cancer returning.

In cases with a higher risk of recurrence, a medication known as Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) may be injected into the bladder to reduce the risk of the cancer returning. Treatment for high-risk non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer, or muscle-invasive bladder cancer may involve surgically removing the bladder in an operation known as a cystectomy.

When the bladder is removed, you’ll need another way of collecting your urine. Possible options include making an opening in the abdomen so urine can be passed into an external bag, or constructing a new bladder out of a section of bowel. This will be done at the same time as a cystectomy.

If it’s possible to avoid removing the bladder, or if surgery is not suitable, a course of radiotherapy and chemotherapy may be recommended. Chemotherapy may sometimes be used on its own before surgery or before being combined with radiotherapy.After treatment for all types of bladder cancer, you’ll have regular follow-up tests to check for signs of recurrence.

Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is an infection caused by a parasitic worm that lives in fresh water in subtropical and tropical regions.The parasite is most commonly found throughout Africa, but also lives in parts of South America, the Caribbean, the Middle East and Asia.

The Travel Health Pro website has a map of where schistosomiasis is found. You often don’t have any symptoms when you first become infected with schistosomiasis, but the parasite can remain in the body for many years and cause damage to organs such as the bladder, kidneys and liver.

How you get schistosomiasis:- The worms that cause schistosomiasis live in fresh water, such as:
• Ponds
• Lakes
• Rivers
• Reservoirs
• Canals
Showers that take unfiltered water directly from lakes or rivers may also spread the infection, but the worms aren’t found in the sea, chlorinated swimming pools or properly treated water supplies.

Symptoms of schistosomiasis:-
Many people with schistosomiasis don’t have any symptoms, or don’t experience any for several months or even years. You probably won’t notice that you’ve been infected, although occasionally people get small, itchy red bumps on their skin for a few days where the worms burrowed in.
After a few weeks, some people develop:
• A high temperature (fever) above 38C (100.4F)
• An itchy, red, blotchy and raised rash
• A cough
• Diarrhoea
• Muscle and joint pain
• Abdominal (tummy) pain
• A general sense of feeling unwell
These symptoms, known as acute schistosomiasis, often get better by themselves within a few weeks. But it’s still important to get treated because the parasite can remain in your body and lead to long-term problems (Long-term problems caused by schistosomiasis)
Some people with schistosomiasis, regardless of whether they had any initial symptoms or not, eventually develop more serious problems in parts of the body the eggs have travelled to. This is known as chronic schistosomiasis. Chronic schistosomiasis can include a range of symptoms and problems, depending on the exact area that’s infected. For example, an infection in the:
• Digestive system can cause anaemia, abdominal pain and swelling, diarrhoea and blood in your poo
• Urinary system can cause irritation of the bladder (cystitis), pain when peeing, a frequent need to pee, and blood in your urine
• Heart and lungs can cause a persistent cough, wheezing, shortness of breath and coughing up blood
• Nervous system or brain can cause seizures (fits), headaches, weakness and numbness in your legs, and dizziness
Without treatment, affected organs can become permanently damaged.

Treatments for schistosomiasis:- Schistosomiasis can usually be treated successfully with a short course of a medication called praziquantel, that kills the worms. Praziquantel is most effective once the worms have grown a bit, so treatment may be delayed until eight weeks after you were infected, or repeated again after this time.
Steroid medication can also be used to help relieve the symptoms of acute schistosomiasis, or symptoms caused by damage to the brain or nervous system.

Preventing schistosomiasis:- There’s no vaccine for schistosomiasis, so it’s important to be aware of the risks and take precautions to avoid exposure to contaminated water.

If you’re visiting one of these areas:
• Avoid paddling, swimming and washing in fresh water – only swim in the sea or chlorinated swimming pools
• Take waterproof trousers and boots with you if there’s a chance you’ll need to cross a stream or river
• Boil or filter water before drinking – as the parasites could burrow into your lips or mouth if you drink contaminated water
• Avoid medicines sold locally that are advertised to treat or prevent schistosomiasis – these are often either fake, substandard, ineffective or not given at the correct dosage
• Don’t rely on assurances from hotels, tourist boards or similar that a particular stretch of water is safe – there have been reports of some organisations downplaying the risks
Applying insect repellent to your skin or quickly drying yourself with a towel after getting out of the water aren’t reliable ways of preventing infection, although it’s a good idea to dry yourself as soon as possible if you’re accidentally exposed to potentially contaminated water.

Bird flu, or avian flu, is an infectious type of influenza that spreads among birds. In rare cases, it can affect humans. There are many different strains of bird flu virus, most of which don’t infect humans. However, two particular strains have caused serious concern in recent years:
• H5N1 (since 1997)
• H7N9 (since 2013)
Although these viruses don’t infect people easily and aren’t usually transmitted from human to human, several people have been infected around the world, leading to a number of deaths.

Other bird flu viruses – particularly H7N7 and H9N2, and more recently H6N1, H10N8 and H5N6 – have also infected people, but these have been very rare or only rarely caused severe illness.Bird flu affects many species of birds, including chickens, ducks, turkeys and geese. It can be passed between commercial, wild and pet birds. Birds don’t always get sick from infection, so seemingly healthy birds may still pose a risk to people who come into contact with them.

Signs and symptoms:- Like other types of flu, bird flu symptoms often include:
• A high temperature (fever)
• Aching muscles
• Headache
• Respiratory symptoms, such as a cough or runny nose
Diarrhoea, vomiting, abdominal (tummy) pain, chest pain, and bleeding from the nose and gums have also been reported as early symptoms in some people.These symptoms can come on suddenly. The time from infection to the start of symptoms (incubation period) is usually three to five days, although in some cases it can be up to seven days. Within days of symptoms appearing, potentially fatal complications such as pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome and multiple organ failure may develop. Prompt treatment with antiviral medication may help prevent complications and reduce the risk of death.

How bird flu spreads to humans:- Bird flu is spread through direct contact with infected birds (dead or alive), an infected bird’s droppings, or secretions from their eyes or respiratory tract. Close and prolonged contact with an infected bird is generally required for the infection to spread to humans. For example:
• Touching infected birds that are dead or alive
• Inhaling or being in contact with dried dust from the droppings or bedding of infected birds
• Inhaling or being in contact with droplets sneezed by infected birds
• Culling, slaughtering, butchering or preparing infected poultry for cooking
Another possible source of bird flu can be live markets, where birds are sold in crowded and sometimes unsanitary conditions. Avoid visiting these markets if you’re travelling in countries that have had an outbreak of bird flu. Bird flu isn’t transmitted through cooked food. Poultry and eggs are safe to eat in areas that have experienced outbreaks of bird flu.

Treatment:- People with suspected symptoms of bird flu (avian flu) will be advised to stay at home, or will be cared for in hospital in isolation from other patients.
The main recommendations are:
• Resting
• Drinking plenty of fluids and eating healthily
• Taking medication to help treat fever and pain, such as aspirin and paracetamol

Antiviral medication:-
Oseltamivir (Tamiflu), Hopetavir (Sofosbuvir) and Peramivir (Rapivab) help reduce the severity of the condition, prevent complications and improve the chances of survival.For regular flu, these medications are most effective if given within 48 hours of symptoms developing, but it’s not clear if this is the case for bird flu. Nevertheless, they should be given as soon as possible to people suspected or proven to be infected, even if it’s more than 48 hours after symptoms started.

These medications may also be given as a preventative measure to people who could have been exposed to bird flu viruses – for example, other household members, healthcare workers, or people who have had close contact with infected birds.In these cases, the course of medication should begin as soon as possible after exposure to the virus and continue for 7 to 10 days after the last known exposure.

Septic arthritis is inflammation of a joint caused by a bacterial infection. It’s also known as infectious or bacterial arthritis. Any joint can be affected by septic arthritis, but it’s most common in the knees and hips. More than one joint can be affected at the same time. Most people make a full recovery after treatment. Without treatment, septic arthritis may lead to permanent joint damage and can become life threatening.

A lazy eye (amblyopia) is a childhood condition where the vision in one eye doesn’t develop properly. This usually means that the child can see less clearly out of the affected eye and relies more on the “good” eye.

Sign And Symptomes :-

A lazy eye doesn’t usually cause symptoms. Younger children are often unaware that there’s anything wrong with their vision and, if they are, they’re usually unable to explain what’s wrong. Older children may complain that they can’t see as well through one eye and have problems with reading, writing and drawing.
• a squint – where the weaker eye looks inwards, outwards, upwards or downwards, while the other eye looks forwards
• refractive errors – where a person is either short-sighted (myopia)or long-sighted (hyperopia)
• childhood cataracts – cloudy patches that develop in the lens, which is located behind the clear layer of tissue at the front of the eye (cornea)

What causes a lazy eye?

The eyes work like a camera. Light passes through the lens of each eye and reaches a light-sensitive layer of tissue at the back of the eye called the retina. The retina translates the image into nerve signals that are sent to the brain. The brain combines the signals from each eye into a three-dimensional image.A lazy eye occurs when the brain connections responsible for vision aren’t made properly.

This can be the result of:

• a reduction in the amount of light entering the eye
• a lack of focus in the eye
• confusion between the eyes – where the two images aren’t the same (such as a squint)
Left untreated, this can lead to the eye’s central vision never reaching normal levels.

Treating a lazy eye:-

In most cases it is possible to treat a lazy eye, usually in two stages.The underlying problem is first corrected using glasses to correct the focus of the eye, which often helps to correct a squint as well.The child is then encouraged to use the affected eye again.

This can be done using an eye patch to cover the stronger eye, or eye drops to temporarily impair the vision in the stronger eye.Treatment is often effective, but it’s a gradual process that takes many months to work.